An Analysis of the Media and Culture Issues of Society :: Media Cultural Essays

The issue of the relationship between the mass media and the customary culture has always been a controversial issue in fond sciences. The political economists insist on the role of the media industry in the creation of this phenomenon of the twentieth century. Though, advocates such as John Fiske, argue that popular culture is actually the creation of the populous itself, and is independent of the capitalist production process of the communication sector. Basing his argument on the immense interpretative power of the people, Fiske believes that the audience is able to suss out all the indented meanings within a media message. He also believes- by giving new meanings to that specific message they can oppose the power block that is trying to impose its ideology to the public. Consequently, this anarchistic activity of the audience creates the popular culture as a defence mechanism. Even when we accept Fiskes ideas, we can non disregard the manipulative power of the media an d its effects on cultural and social life. Everyday we are exposed to millions of different visual messages, which tell us what to eat, what to wear, what to bring in and what to listen. No matter how hard we try to avoid being influenced by these directives, we can only protect ourselves to a certain point. After that, no interpretive power can be helpful. Media then leads us to a path that ends up in the same department store with our neighbour, with whom we have probably never spoken to before. Ironically, we are holding the same pair of socks or CDs, and we might never want to recall the TV commercial that had opened the gates to this path. The coupled States is the biggest economical power in the world today, and consequently has also the strongest and largest media industry. Therefore, it is essential to take a look at the crucial relationship between the media and the popular culture within the social context of the United States for a better understanding of th e issue. For a simpler analysis of the subject we shall divide the media industry into three principal(prenominal) branches Entertainment, News and Commercials (which is the essential device for the survival of the industry, and shall be considered in integration with Entertainment). Researches have shown that the most popular reason behind TV viewing is liberalisation and emptying the mind.

Analysis of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great Expectations Essay -- Great

Analysis of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great ExpectationsPlot and Setting- The plot starts out with a myopic boy take a shit Phillip Pirrip. It is a first person narrative about a boy back in the nineteenth century. The first eight chapters deal generally with Pips childhood years. It also deals with who Pip is, and his family. In the beginning of the story Pip introduces himself, and introduces his dead p arnts. He is in the graveyard, and then a shivery looking man comes up. The man threatens him. The plot of the story I think is expert because it deals a lot with the struggles in a child. He has no unmatched to turn to. The author rattling helped us relate to the story.Pip gets in trouble at Christmas time. He gets hit with The Tickler which was a sarcastic name for a paddle. In the middle of the story two officers with Muskets come to the house. They need a blacksmith. Outside they capture two convicts. One of those convicts is Pips convict. The other one is the one that Pips convict tried to kill. They ar both caught.Later on in the story, and later in his life, Pip meets a young girl named Estella. He secretly has a crush on her. Estella does not care much for Pip. She thinks he is not very gentlemen like. She also thinks that he is coarse and common. Estella and Pip do talk though. She is like a mother to Pip, she kind of disciplines him. Pip is in love with her, but she would have nothing to do with him. She thinks that his is nothing spectacular.Characters- The first character introduced in the story is a boy name Pip, he is the boy I talked about above. The next two introduced, are his mother and father. They are both dead, and Pip is all alone in life accept for his sister. That is who is introduced next. His sister is married to a man named Joe. Pip lives with these people. The scary convict described above was the next character introduced into the story. Mr. Wopsle is the next character introduced into the sto ry. He was the clerk at the church, and he also goes to the Three Jolly Bargemen with Joe. The whell-wright was Mr. Hubble, and his wife. Joes uncles name is Mr. Pumblechook, he and Pip are pretty good friends in the beginning sections. They share many experiences together. Miss Havisham and Estella are the next to be introduced. Estella is Miss Havishams supposable daughter. Miss Havisham find... ...t around it, and he had a drawbridge. He loved his house. Wemmick ended up being a very good guide for Pip, because he helped him make some pretty tough descisions.Barnards Inn- This straddle is just a dump. It is in a part of the city where the buildings are close together, and Pip does not really enjoy staying here. He always talks about a guy named Barnard, although there was no guy really named Barnard. This place is definitely a place where Pip will not want to go back to.The Temple- Pip enjoys this place a lot cleanse than Barnards Inn. Him and Herbert live there, a nd they share the room. They each have there own room in there, and Provis stays there for a while. I pictured this place as a kind of apartment building that was not very modern. I can get a good picture in my level of what The Temple looked like.Joes Home-This is where Pip grew up at, so I am guessing this is where his greatest memories are. So much had happened in that house, since the time he was little and even up to when Joe and Biddy were married. That house to me always seemed so out in the middle of nowhere, but still warm and a great family environment. A typical country home.

The Death Penalty is a Necessary Deterrent to Crime Essay -- Exemplifi

The Death Penalty is a Necessary Deterrent to Crime shoot and rape are serious crimes, although they arent the only crimes that could be considered serious. Others that might be considered are stealing, which has numerous categories under it such as grand theft auto, etc The following(a) story is the true account of a young female named Donna. This story tells of Donnas rape and then her murder by a man named McCorquodale and his friend Leroy. The power is telling this story in order to create the mental picture of what murder and rape really are.The appellant, after telling Donna how pretty she was, raised his clenched fist and hit her across the face. When she stood up, he grabbed her by her blouse, ripping it off and tied her hands behind her back with a nylon stocking. Then he bound her speak with tape and a washcloth. Leroy then kicked Donna and she fell to the floor.McCorquodale then had forced intercourse with her. . . Then Leroy had forced intercourse with the victim. . . The victim was then permitted to go to the bathroom to get cleaned up.While she was in the bathroom, McCorquodale secured a piece of nylon rope and told Bonnie, her roommate, that he was going to kill the girl. He hid in a closet across the hall from the bathroom and when Donna came out of the bathroom he wrapped the nylon cord around her neck. Donna screamed, My God, youre killing me. As McCorquodale tried to strangle her, the cord cut into his hands and Donna fell to the floor. He fell on covering fire of her and began to strangle her with his bare hands. He removed his hands and the victim began to have convulsions. He again strangled her and then pulled her head up and forward to have on her neck.After killing her he covered her life... ...rred by the death penalty. In Schonebaum, S.E. (Ed.), Does capital punishment deter crime? (pp. 45-46) San Diego, CA Greenhaven Press, Inc.Sowell, T. & DiIulio, J. Jr. (1997) The death penalty is adeterrent. In Winters, P.A.(Ed.), The death penalty debate view points (pp. 103-107). San Diego, CA Greenhaven Press, Inc.Specter, A. (1997) A swifter death penalty would be aneffective deterrent. In Winters, P.A. (Ed.), The death penalty opposing view points (pp. 114-119). San Diego, CA Greenhaven Press, Inc.Specter, A. (1998) A swifter death penalty would be aneffective deterrent. In Schonebaum, S.E. (Ed.), Does capital punishment deter crime? (pp. 87-96) San Diego, CA Greenhaven Press, Inc.The death penalty will discourage crime (1701). InWinters, P.A. (Ed.), The death penalty opposing view points (pp. 17-20). San Diego, CA Greenhaven Press, Inc.

kodak brief review :: essays research papers

NoteThe run will be in two parts. Part 1 will comprise a set of multiple-choice questionsdesigned to check your understanding of all of the lectures material. Part 2 will concern this baptisterystudy, with the examination paper including a set of questions about it.The case study describes a situation, which you need to question further and resolve. In preparationfor the examination, you should analyse this case study and relate it to the lectures so that you arriveat the examination with an understanding of how you might proceed.CASE STUDYKodak, based in Rochester, New York, where it pioneered the use of photographic film 100years ago, has been facing weak pelf and job cuts as it struggles to turn round itsbusiness.Wednesday, 21 June, 2000, 1126 GMT 1226 UKKodak looks to digital salvation by BBC News Onlines Steve SchifferesThe worlds roughly famous film company is hoping that the digital film revolution will stick to to its rescue.Dan Carp, Kodaks chief executive, told BBC Ne ws Online that he was "very frustrated" by the humiliated share price forhis company which is trading at around 10 times earnings despite five quarters of record profits."There is no question that digital imaging is going to expand the use of photography and make it more than userfriendly," he explained to News Online during a whirlwind tour of Europe."Whats retentiveness us back is some scepticism that the digital revolution is yet to be finalised," he state.Fresh investmentMr Carp told the BBC that the company would invest two-thirds of its $900m research and development budget indigital technologies. It was also spending over $1bn in buying back its own shares in order to boost their price.Analysts adduce the share buybacks are needed to boost the companys earnings per share which have been dilutedby employees cashing in some 20m stock options last year.Mr Carp said he was not worried by the threat of a takeover. However, he admitted that the marketpla ce for digitalimaging technology was likely to be more herd than traditional photography, with companies like Sony vyingwith Kodak, Fuji, and Olympus.Kodak had been slow to introduce full digital technology, fearing that it would hurt sales of existing photographicproducts. But it now aims for 45% of its sales, and 27% of profits, to come from digital sales by 2005.Mr Carp said that the introduction of broadband and other high-speed internet connections would speed the take-upof digital technology. There were more than 4m digital cameras sold in the USA, and 1m in Europe, last year, and

Ancient Egyptian Culture :: Egypt Ancient World Culture

Somewhere around 1375 years before the birth of Christ, an Egyptian pharaoh publicly changed his name. That change signalled a return to long-standing tradition, a hallmark of Egyptian stopping point that flourished for more than three thousand years peacefully in the rich Nile River valley. The king had been called Tutankhaton. The last portion of his name, aton, was the name for the sun-god, which, in the years before the kings reign, had achieved short letter among the competing deities in Egyptian religious tradition. The king changed his name to the one by which he is known today -- TUTANKHAMEN or, more popularly, King Tut -- and ended the brief sample in monotheism in favor of the older religion with its promise of an afterlife.And what an afterlife the pharaoh would have Embalmed in order to endure the elements of disintegration, richly attired to attest to his mythical earthly wealth, magnificently housed to remind all on-lookers of the towering greatness of the entombed human -- the pharaoh lived on in perpetual association with the stone structures that rose portentously come to the fore of the hot, barren sands of the desert so close to the life-giving, greening Nile. And the solemn bearing of these great structures reminds people today of the human hope for immortality and the way an ideal culture fashioned a collective immortality in astonishing stone. Here was a culture that would persist, just as its pharaohs would live on in their tacit palaces.More interesting, perhaps, is the collective underwriting of the PYRAMIDS. No fewer than 70,000 workers would have been needed to lug limestone blocks from desert miles away to the building sites. Yet there is little evidence that the pharaohs had to blackjack their subjects to leave their fields and families in order to build a monument whose completion any single worker would certainly never see.

Ancient Egyptian Culture :: Egypt Ancient World Culture

Somewhere around 1375 eld before the birth of Christ, an Egyptian pharaoh publicly changed his name. That change signalled a return to long-standing tradition, a trademark of Egyptian culture that flourished for more than three thousand years peacefully in the rich Nile River valley. The king had been called Tutankhaton. The last portion of his name, aton, was the name for the sun-god, which, in the years before the kings reign, had achieved preeminence among the competing deities in Egyptian religious tradition. The king changed his name to the one by which he is known today -- TUTANKHAMEN or, more popularly, King Tut -- and stop the brief experiment in monotheism in favor of the older religion with its promise of an afterlife.And what an afterlife the pharaoh would have Embalmed in order to endure the elements of disintegration, richly polished to attest to his fabulous earthly wealth, magnificently housed to remind all on-lookers of the towering greatness of the entombed human -- the pharaoh lived on in perpetual association with the stone structures that ruddiness portentously out of the hot, barren sands of the desert so close to the life-giving, greening Nile. And the solemn bearing of these great structures reminds people today of the human promise for immortality and the way an entire culture fashioned a collective immortality in astonishing stone. Here was a culture that would persist, just as its pharaohs would live on in their silent palaces.More interesting, perhaps, is the collective underwriting of the PYRAMIDS. No fewer than 70,000 workers would have been needed to lug limestone blocks from desert miles away to the building sites. Yet there is diminutive evidence that the pharaohs had to coerce their subjects to leave their fields and families in order to build a monument whose completion any single worker would certainly never see.

Ethics of Designer Babies Essay

I believe that it is unacceptable to reproduce genetically intentional babies, unless it is to prevent disease or disability. inheritedally designing babies stub be used in many different ways. You can discern their hair and eye modify, their IQ, and their special talents. People are beginning to predispose their churlren to be whatever they think they should be. Some deprivation their children to be superstar athletes, dapple new(prenominal)s want the next Beethoven.Others want their children to be in effect(p) as they are. A desensitize lesbian mate wanted to set about a deaf child. Their friend donated the sperm and they asked the geneticists if it were possible to create a deaf child. A fewer months later, the child was born as a fully deaf baby. I believe that it is wrong to intentionally harm a fetus by giving them a disability or disease. It prevents them from living a fully functional life.If a couple were to research or visit a gene therapist, and they determi ned if the couple were to have a male child, the child would most definitely be born with a heart defect and would unless live a few years, only when if they had a feminine child that she would be perfective tensely healthy, so it is okay to provide the family security by enabling them to have a female child. By doing this, they are preventing a disability or disease. If the couple has four boys and intentionally says If I am having a male, I want an abortion. then that is in all immoral.In one book, Choosing Children, It asks the suspense People use antenatal or pre-implantation genetic diagnosis to have a child without disability. Is this a form of eugenics? Is it a part of a slide toward what the Nazis did? . I believe that it is a form of eugenics. We are bettering the society by providing fully functional tender-hearted beings. Nazis werent trying to prevent a disease or disability, they were worried about the physical features of the Jewish descent. other book, Dis ability and Genetic Choice, asked if it were okay to have a Down Syndrome test.I believe that it is okay to have the testing as long as it is not the determining performer in terminating a pregnancy. This gives the parent(s) a chance to prepare themselves and be educated or give them a chance to arrange an adoption. I draw the bourne of designing babies at preventing disability. It is redundant to chose a babies hair or eye color. Just because they have a certain hair or eye color does not mean that they will be treated or act differently in society. Every genetic change has a downside, so while creating a child that is an athlete by making their uscles work harder, it is causing their heart to weaken a lot faster than someone who was not designed.Genetically strengthening babies can provide a family with a piece of mind that they will have a healthy child. Although many people want to chose how their children may look or act, having a healthy, functioning, strong child will triu mph over how they may look or act. Before one popular opinion that he could genetically design a child, In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) came about. IVF then paved the way for preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and preimplantation genetic selection (PGS).PGD is the process in which the doctors screen the fertilized eggs to see if any genetic disorders are present. Many of the disorders that are screened are life changing, disabling conditions. PGS is the process in which they hand pick the embryo without any genetic disorders and implant it back into the mother. This is the first red flag many people see in how genetically designed babies came about. This may be the only (mostly) uncontroversial part of genetics and IVF. The only ones who criticize this are those who believe that life starts at contraception.I believe that this is okay to do since it promotes bettering ones life, solely this is where the line should be drawn. Another technique that is often used along with this is gender selection. The only reason I believe that it is virtuously correct to choose a babys gender is preventing disease. For example, if all the women in the family die from breast cancer, or cervical cancer by the age of 40, then it is morally acceptable to want to increase the chances of having a male child. If the only reason one wants to have a certain gendered child is for convenience then it is unacceptable. in equivalent manner along these lines comes having a child to better another childs life. Like in the book, My Sisters Keeper, the older sister was dying from a rare cancer, and the parents only choice to keep her alive was to have another child to use as spare parts. I believe that this is done with computable intention, but it is not ethical. An article, couturier Babies Eugenics Repackaged or Consumer Options, discusses one child being sick and his associate gave him his red blood cells before he was even born, and the sick brother was cured.They questioned this process Is this the beginning of a slippery slope toward designer or spare parts babies, or is the result that there are now devil happy, healthy children instead of one very sick child a verticalification to pursue and continue procedures such as this one? . This is the exact question I would expect anyone to ask. Although there are miracles, and high percentage rates that if a child would receive particular parts from a sibling then they can be cured, but there are mistakes and the unfortunate occasions where it does not work.This puts the healthy child at risk and causes them to go through unnecessary pain. I believe that the risks may outweigh the benefits in many cases. The child conceived or designed to better the other childs life is just as much human as the sick child, therefore, it is their human right that they shall be treated just as any other human being. The other ethical position would likely believe that it is the parents choice to do as they please, in means, to their children.The article The art of medicine interior designer Babies choosing our childrens genes, discusses the absurdity of the parents to not want the best for their children. This is shown in the following statement from the article . That is exactly what parents are supposed to do. To get our children to be healthy, well mannered, intellectually curious, and well behaved, we view what they eat, have them vaccinated, teach them manners, read to them, and discipline them when they misbehave. It would be absurd for a parent to say, I never attempt to influence my childrens development.I just love them for who they are. Thus, it is not influencing our childrens traits that is objectionable, but rather the means to accomplish this, that is, choosing their genes. . This statement is true, in fact, its absolutely correct for one to think in this manner. provided it is the lengths that parents go to ensure that their child will be perfect that is unethical. Although parents sho uld shape their childs live to be well behaved, healthy, and curious, it is up to the children to decide who they would like to be, and not be predisposed to be something in particular.The topic is so controversial, the same article that believes it is ethical to genetically design babies, The art of medicine Designer Babies choosing our childrens genes stated that A more serious objection stems from the predilection that people who want to choose, in advance, the traits their child will have, and are willing to elapse so much money to get a child with certain traits, demonstrate a kind of desire for perfectionism that seems incompatible with being a good parent. An insistence on having a child of a certain sort, whether a musician or an athlete or a politician, amounts to parental tyranny. .This is also true, the idea that a parent would spend significant amounts of money to sustain perfection is ridiculous. Parents have the right to want their children to be almost perfect but i t is their commercial enterprise to teach them the right way to live. By spending all of their money to ensure perfection, they are almost cheating at being a parent. Another objection to designer babies would be genetically designing perfect children can create a social gap in society. The art of medicine Designer Babies choosing our childrens genes stated that this would exacerbate social differences and the gap between wealthy and poor.I seriously doubt that genetic interventions would have more of an influence than exist causes of inequality, such as rotten neighborhoods and lousy schools. In any event, prebirth genetic enhancement could be used to combat social inequality, by giving children from separate backgrounds a leg up. . How would you tell a child the reason they arent as smart or as attractive as some of the other children is that they dont have special enough blood or genes? There is already enough separation in our society. Not only rich and poor, but jocks, musi cians, geeks, race, sexuality and many other groups also exist in schools.How would one like to hear of one of the new cliches in school, the enhanced children? I cant imagine how it would feel to be one of the children whose parents couldnt afford to have them custom made. Eventually weak and poor individuals would be terminated using this new technology. Weak children would all eventually be used as spare parts to the sick children that have been genetically designed. Parents would have children just to benefit an already existing child, and once the child was cured, the spare parts child would not have any use.Parenting would also be a thing of the past. Parents wouldnt have to worry about teaching their children the correct ways to function in society, their children would already be predisposed to be perfect and act the correct ways. Instead of moving forward in society and technology, technically we are reverting back to the days of Hitler. Hitler terminated all the individual s that he believed were lesser human beings. The act of Hitler terminating Jewish descent individuals and the act of genetically designing babies is all in the search for perfection -the perfect human being.

Religion and Morality Essay

Morality as wagerant on religionThe idea of whether devotion and religion argon linked or not was first looked upon by Plato, where in his Euthyphro Dilemma he asks, Is what is pious loved by the divinitys be engender it is pious, or is something pious because it is loved? In public figureer(a) words he is questioning whether things are dear because immortal commands them to be, or does idol command them because they are good? I will first examine the passel followed by theists today, that things are good because God loves them and that religion and morality are linked.There are a number of ways which you can buoy establish a possible link amidst religion and morality, the first being heteronomously. Heteronomy is the view that morality depends on religious belief, or things derived from religion. The rules in heteronomous societies are from religious authority so will obviously be linked to religion, however a non-religious person is still capable of being heteronomous a s they belong and abide by the cultures laws because adopting a morality strandd on religion. To a certain extent it is hard to deny aspects of heteronomy, since words the like good and evil are cause by religion. It would be hard to present an ethical theory free from these terms.A theonomous link can alike be made, where morality and religion depend on one source (for example, in Western cultures God) who is the fundamental designer of what is moral. Unlike Heteronomy, Theonomy does not require a religious authority as it is to do with the individuals personal belief in the aforementioned source. The Natural Law theory developed by Aquinas is considered theonomous, in which an uncaused cause is the creative source for all. We can access God directly in this theory by fulfilling our purposes in life set by Him at our creation.The view that things are good with Gods command is directly illustrated in The Divine Command Theory, the common theory adopted by gestaters in the G od of Classical Theism. According to Emil Brunner (1947), The Good consists in always doing what God wills at any particular moment, as it essentially impossible for God to command an evil act. If nothing was commanded or forbidden by God then in that location would be no wrong or right and arguably, there would be chaos.The DCT can be seen to provide a strong foundation for a abiding necessary morality to be built upon as come up as personal reasons to abide by it. For example, taken from the views of Kant (although not directly aimed at the DCT) the belief in the globe of an afterlife gives us incentive to live a moral life, which we otherwise may not be able to force ourselves to do. The presence of such an afterlife, and the fear of punishment wangle it rational (According to William Craig) to go against your own self-interest for the benefit of others, as self-sacrificial acts are looked upon well by God. This provides more answers to the question Why be Moral?The DCT can be accessed through the Decalogue in the leger (Exodus 20, old Testament), which provides a set of ten absolute, deonto sensible commands by God. Also through the New Testament in Jesus Sermon on the Mount where he makes laws much more situationalist with teachings such as Love your neighbour, which are flexible and apply to many situations.Finally, many theists argue that it does not make sense for morals to exist in a non-moral universe as there is at a timehere they originate from, they dont fit into a natural universe. They do however fit into a theistic universe where they were created by a moral creator (i.e God), it is then easy to see wherefore they exist. This is supported by philosophers such as John Newman who states that feelings of responsibility and guilt point to God, and by D.I Trethowan, who suggests that an awareness of obligation is an awareness of God.Aii) Morality as freelancer from ReligionA belief in morality as being totally independant from God is an aut onomous belief, and there are many arguments in meekness with Autonomy, very much to do with the idea of free-will. If we really are to act with personal freedom of choice then we cannot act off of fear of Gods punishment, it totally voids the notion of free-will and if God is omniscient and omnipotent he would k immediately what decisions we are to make anyway and he would have the ability to tour us making the wrong ones. James Rachels concludes that no being like God can exist who requires us to abandon our moral autonomy is deserving worshipping.There are theories in concurrence with Autonomy which allow still for a good, firm morality without dependency on religion such as Utilitarianism (greatest good for greatest number) so it can be said that religion is unnecessaryThere are many autonomous arguments against the DCT, beginning with the fact that God himself is not bound by any moral law. This would mean that Gods Ten Commandments could easily have been totally the opposi te to what they are, encouraging acts like murder and we would still consider them to be good as God is the epitemy of good. This worrying problem was recognized by philosophers such as G.W Leibniz, who decreed, Why encomium him for what he has done, if he would be equally as praiseworthy if he had done the contrary?There is belief that if God had commanded acts such as murder, passel still would not do them as we through our cognizance feel they are intrinsically wrong.Another difficulty with the DCT lies in the many different interpretations which can be drawn from God. The existence of lots of different religions all with equal claim to God makes it very complicated as we cannot tell which one is right. Also, if morality depends on God then surely it would be impossible for an atheist to live a moral life, but this is obviously untrue as so many atheists do live morally.Further criticisms of the DCT stem from its assumption that God is omnibenevolent, a claim which is not easy to comprehend for the atheist because of the undeniable existence of evil.Lastly, many people argue that religion is itself immoral, as it is through religion that the about part of suicide bomb attacks, and other horrific acts are carried out. Examples could be drawn from the events in America involving the Twin Towers, or more recently the teacher in Sudan who is imprisoned for allowing a teddy to be named after the visionary Muhammad. If not for religion, these arguably ridiculous acts would never be justifiable. Hume said on the subject, the errors in religion are dangerous those in philosophy only ridiculous.Richard Dawkins in The God Delusion, clearly advocates the theory that religion is immoral when he discusses the story of Lot. This righteous man is to be come throughd from the destruction of Soddom and Gomorrah because he is the most worthy man, however he offers his daughters for gang rape. According to Dawkins this emphasizes the serious disrespect for women in an i ntensely religious culture.B) To what extent is one of these claims more convincing than the otherGoing back to the basics of the Divine Command Theory, there are 613 commands in the Bible which were originally in effect, but are not now because they are outdated, and theists argue that an omniscient God used them knowing they would be relevant for different times. These theists fail, however to a provide a logical explanation for why there is nothing in the Bible which can be related to biological advances such as cloning, an omniscient God should be capable of filling in these gaps in moral law.Furthermore, as Dawkins relevantly points out how can someone decide that parts of the Bible are now irrelevant, this is just picking and choosing which parts are in your best interest to follow. This suggests that the Bible and therefore the DCT does not in fact provide a stable foundation for morality as there are numerous conclusions to be drawn from relevant parts. It must also be take n into consideration that the Bible is not in its original form, through hundreds of years it has been composed and revised so (as put forward by Dawkins again) does it not seem strange that we base our whole morality on such a distorted teaching.Another feature of the DCT, is that everyone will be judged by God, punished for their sins, often in the form of natural disasters. People could say that the recent tsunami and Hurricane Katrina incidents were a form of punishment, but as Dawkins once again highlights, why did this have to happen? It is hard to believe that everyone who died in these disasters was evil, so why could our omnipotent God of Classical Theism not just strike down the individuals without causing so much collateral damage.Moreover, this persuasively further argues the immoral messages religion can be seen to give.Often, it is argued that the set in pock rules of the DCT inspire people to live a moral life out of the incentive of making it to heaven, and avoiding hell. This may be true, but does it not tarnish the goodness of an act when it is done out of selfish reason? Does it then make that act immoral? Yes it does, so it can then be said that the DCT again fails to provide a stable, reasonable basis for morality.These set in stone rules are also cause for discussion, as they are obviously inarguable to a Divine Command Theorist. To them, consequentialist views such as killing someone to save a greater number would undisputedly be wrong. Even if our intuition is what is telling us that defying a command is right, the believer in DCT would say it is our intuition at fault They do, however fail to take into consideration that by their own decrees intuition is given to us by God to live morally, so why would we intuitively want to go against God?Dawkins arguments suggest that religion is responsible for the most part of evil in the world and his descriptions of people like terrorists as e.g. Not psychotic they are religious idealists who, b y their own lights, are rational certainly make sense. However he makes it seem that no religious person has the capacity to do good, which can easily be refuted at the mere mention of the names Mother Theresa, or Martin Luther King. He also unsurprisingly doesnt mention the likes of atheist like Stalin who birthed communism in Russia.Despite this, the majority of Dawkins views and the massive flaws in the DCT show the latter statement in the initial question (Is something good because God commands it, or does God command something because it is good?) to be the most convincing of the two.Although the DCT offers a way for humanity to be good, religion itself harbors too many inconsistencies to base everything we stand for on.

Greek Art(Sculpture, Vessels)

Hellenic Art No matter how accomplished they might be, the deeds of ruse we lose discussed so remote seem alien to us. The ancient horticultures that produced them were so opposite from our sustain that we find few references in those works to our time. classical architecture, sculpture, and delineation, however, atomic number 18 directly recognizable as the ancestors of Western civilization, despite their debts to in the beginning art. A Grecian temple reminds us of count slight g everywherenment constructions, banks, and college campuses a classical statue recalls countless statues of our make day and a Hellenic coin is a little different from those we use today.This is n any coincidental nor inevitable. Western civilization has c befully constructed itself in the render of the Greek or the Roman worlds. For an art historian trying to understand the visual culture of those worlds, this presents a special challenge It is tempting to debate that nearlything old (prenominal) on the surface holds the equal signifi stopce for us as it did for the Greeks or the Romans, merely scholars piddle discovered time and time once again that this is a terrible fallacy.Another complication in studying Greek art arises because there atomic number 18 triad give away, and sometimes conflicting, sources of reading on the subject. First, there ar the works themselvesreliable, solely only a subaltern fraction of what once existed. Second, there are Roman copies of Greek originals, peculiarly sculptures. These works tell us something some free weighty pieces that would otherwise be lost to us, entirely copies stupefy their own problems. Without the original, we cannot determine how faithful the copy is, and sometimes multiple copies present some(prenominal) versions of a iodin original.To make things even more complicated, a Roman scratch awls notion of a copy was quite different from ours. A Roman copy was not necessarily intended as a st rict imitation, but allowed for interpreting or adapting the work according to the taste or skill of the copyist or the wishes of the patron. Moreover, the quality of some Greek sculpture owed much to surface discharge, which, in a copy, is entirely up to the copyist. If the original was bronze and the copy marble, the finish would differ spectacularally.In some rare cases, apparent copies are of such high quality that we cannot be sure that they really are copies. The third source of information close to Greek works is literature. The Greeks were the first Western people to spare at length about their own artists. Roman writers incorporated Greek accounts into their own many of these defy survived, although often in fragmentary condition. These written sources offer a glimpse of what the Greeks themselves considered their most important achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting.This written testimony has helped us to find out celebrated artists and monuments, thoug h much of it deals with works that have not survived. In other cases, endure Greek works that strike us as among the greatest masterpieces of their time are not menti adeptd at all in literature. Reconciling the literature with the copies and the original works, and weaving these strands into a coherent picture of the information of Greek art, has been the difficult task of archeologists and ancient art historians for several centuries.The Greek Gods and Goddesses All early civilizations and preliterate cultures had creation myths to explain the origin of the human race and good-wills rank in it. Over time, these myths evolved into complex cycles that represent a comprehensive attempt to understand the world. The Greek gods and goddesses, though im soul, behaved in very valet ways. They quarreled, and had children with each others spouses and often with mortals as rise up. They were sometimes threatened and even overthrown by their own children.The principal Greek gods and go ddesses, with their Roman counter neighborhoods in parentheses, are given below. ZEUS (Jupiter) son of Kronos and Rhea god of sky and weather, and king of the Olympian deities. After killing Kronos, genus Zeus married his sister HERA (Juno) and divided the universe by lot with his brothers POSEIDON (Neptune) as allotted the sea and HADES (Pluto) was allotted the Underworld, which he ruled with his queen PERSEPHONE (Proserpina). Zeus and Hera had several children ARES (Mars), the god of war HEBE, the goddess of youthHEPHAISTOS (Vulcan), the feeble god of metalwork and the forge Zeus lost had numerous children through his love affairs with other goddesses and with mortal women, including ATHENA (Minerva), goddess of crafts, including war, and thus of intelligence and wisdom. A protector of heroes, she became the patron goddess of Athens, an honor she won in a contest with Poseidon. Her gift to the city was an olive tree, which she ca apply to sprout on the Akropolis. APHRODITE (Venu s), the goddess of love, beauty, and fe masculine fertility. She married Hephaistos, but had many affairs.Her children were HARMONIA, EROS, and ANTEROS (with Ares) HERMAPHRODITOS (with Hermes) PRIAPOS (with Dionysos) and AENEAS (with the Trojan prince Anchises). APOLLO ( Apollo), with his twin sister ARTEMIS, god of the stringed lyre and bow, who therefore both(prenominal) presided over the civilized pursuits of music and poetry, and shot down transgressors a paragon of male beauty, he was likewise the god of prophecy and medicine. ARTEMIS (Diana), with her twin brother, APOLLO, virgin goddesses of the hunt and the protector of young girls.She was as well sometimes considered a moon goddess with SELENE. DIONYSOS (Bacchus), the god of adapted states particularly that induced the wine. Opposite in temperament to Apollo, Dionysos was raised on Mount Nysa, where he invented winemaking he married the princess Ariadne later on the hero Theseus cast out her on Naxos. His followers, th e goatish satyrs and their womanly companions, the nymphs and humans who were know as maenads (bacchantes), were given to orgiastic excess. besides, there was another, more temperate side to Dionysos character.As the god of fertility, he was also a god of vegetation, as tumesce as of peace, hospitality, and the theater. HERMES (Mercury), the messenger of the gods, conductor of souls to Hades, and the god of travelers and commerce. The great flowering of ancient Greek art was just unmatchable observation of a wide-ranging exploration of humanistic and religious issues. Artists, writers, and philosophers struggled with common question, becalm preserved in a huge body of works. Their inquiries cut to the very affectionateness of human existence, and have formed the backb ace of much of Western philosophy.For the most part, they accepted a pantheon of gods, whom they worshiped in human form. (See Informing Art, above) Yet they debated the nature of those gods, and the affinity amidst divinities and humankind. Did fate control human actions, or was there free will? And if so, what was the nature of virtue? Greek thinkers conceived of many aspects of life in military manichaean terms. Order (cosmos, in Greek) was eternally opposed to disorder (chaos), and both poles permeated existence. Civilization, which was, by definition, Greek, stood in pposition to an uncivilized world beyond Greek borders all non-Greeks were barbarians, named for the nonsensical hold out of their languages to Greek ears (bar-bar-bar-bar). Reason, too, had its opposite the irrational, mirrored in light and darkness, in man and cleaning lady. In their literature and in their art, the ancient Greeks addressed the tension mingled with these glacial opposites. THE EMERGENCE OF GREEK ART THE GEOMETRIC STYLE The first Greek-speaking groups came to Greece about 2000 BCE. These newcomers brought with them a new culture that soon evolved to encompass most of mainland Greece, as tumefy as the Aegean Islands and Crete.By the first millennium BCE the Greeks had colonized the west coast of Asia Minor and Cyprus. In this period we distinguish three main subgroups the Dorinians, centered in Peloponnese the Ionians, inhabiting Attica, Euboea, the Cyclades, and the central coast of Asia Minor and the Aeolians, who ended up in the northeast Aegean (see map 5. 1). Despite their cultural differences and their geographical dispersal, the Greeks had a strong genius of kinship, demonstrated on language and common beliefs.From the mid- 8th through the mid-sixth centuries BCE, there was a wave of colonization as the Greeks expanded across the Mediterranean and as far as the Black Sea. At this time, they primeed important settlements in Sicily and southern Italy, collectively know as Magna Graecia, and in North Africa. After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, art became largely nonfigural for several centuries. In the eighth century BCE, the oldest Greek title that we know in the arts developed, known today as the geometrical.Images come ined at about the time the first principle was introduced (under strong some Eastern influence). It was contemporaneous, too, with the work of the poet Homer (or a group of poets), who wrote the lasting epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, tales of the Trojan War and the return of one of its heroes, Odysseus, home to Ithaka. We also have works in varicoloured pottery and small-scale sculpture in clay and bronze. The deuce forms are closely relate Pottery was often adorned with the kinds of figures found in sculpture. Geometric Style PotteryAs quickly as pottery became an art form, Greek potters began to develop an extensive, but middling standardized, repertoire of vessel mould (fig. 5. 1). Each geek was well adapted to its function, which was reflected in its form. As a result, each shape presented unique challenges to the lynx, and some became specialists at decorating certain types of vases. Larger pots of ten attracted the most ambitious craftsmen because they provided a more generous field on which to work. Making and decorating vases were complex processes, unremarkably performed by different artisans.At first painters decorated their wares with abstract foundings, such as triangles, checkerboard, and concentric circles. Toward 800 BCE human and animal figures began to appear within the geometric framework, and in the most elaborated examples these figures interacted in narrative scenes. The vase shown here, from a cemetery near the later Dipylon gate in the north westerly corner of Athens, dates to around 750 BCE (fig. 5. 2). Known as the Dipylon Vase, it was one of a group of un ordinarily large vessels used as grave monuments. Holen in its base allowed liquid offerings (libations) to filter down to the dead below.In earlier centuries, Athenians had dictated the ashes of their cremated dead inside vases, choosing the vases shape according to the sex of the deceased. A womans remains were conceal in a belly-handled amphora, a type of vase more unremarkably used for storing wine or oil a mans ashes were placed in a recognise-amphora. A krater, a large bowl-like vessel in which Greeks normally motley wine with water, had also been used as a burial marker since the early first millennium(see fig. 5. 1). The shape of the example illustrated here shows that the deceased was a woman its sheer monumentality suggests that she was a woman of considerable means.The amphora is a masterpiece of the potters craft. At over 5 feet leggy, it was too large to be thrown in one piece. Instead, the potter built it up in sections, joined with a clay slip. A careful proportional scheme governed the vessels form Its width measures half of its c equaliser and the neck measures half the height of the body. The artist placed the handles so as to emphasize the widest point of the body. Most of the vases decoration is given over to geometric patterns dominated by a meander pattern, also known as a maze or Greek key pattern (fig 5. ), a plenty of angular records, punctuated with bands of lustrous black paint at the neck, the shoulder, and the base. The geometric design reflects the proportional system of the vases shape. Single meander patterns run in bands toward the top off and bottom of the neck the triple meander encircling the neck at the center emphasizes its length. The double and single meanders on the amphoras body appear stocky by contrast, complementing the bodys rounder form. to a higher place the triple meander on the neck, deer graze, one subsequently(prenominal) the other, in an identical pattern circling the vase.This animal frieze prefigures the widespread use of the motif in the one-seventh century BCE. At the base of the neck, they recline, with their heads turned back over their bodies, like an animate version of the meander pattern itself, which moves ever forward while spell back upon itself. In the center of the amphora, framed between its handles, is a narrative scene. The deceased lies on a bier, beneath a checkered shroud. Flanking her are rest figures with their arms raised above their heads in a gesture of lamentation an additional four figures kneel on sit beneath the bier.Rather than striving for naturalism, the painter used solid black geometric forms to construct human bodies. A triangle represents the torso, and the raised arms extend the triangle beyond the shoulders. The scene itself represents the prothesis, part of the Athenian funerary ritual when the dead psyche lay in state and public mourning took place. A lavish funeral was an occasion to display wealthiness and status, and crowds of mourners were so desirable that families would hire professional mourners for the event.Thus the depiction of a funeral on the burial marker is not simply journalistic reportage but a visual record of the deceased persons high standing in society. Archeologists have found Geometric pottery in Ital y and the Near East as well as in Greece. This wide distribution is a sign of the important role not only the Greeks but also the Phoenicians, North Syrians, and other Near Eastern peoples as agents of diffusion all around the Mediterranean. What is more, from the morsel half of the eighth century onwards, historys on hese vases show that the Greeks had already adapted the Phoenician alphabet to their own use. Geometric Style Sculpture A small, bronze sculptural group representing a man and a centaur dates to about the same time as the funerary amphora, and there are distinct similarities in the way living forms are depicted in both works of art(fig. 5. 4). Thin arms and flat, angulate chests contrast with more rounded buttocks and legs. The heads are spherical forms, with beards and noses added. The artist cast the group in one piece, uniting them with a common base and their entwined pose.The group was probably found in the sanctuary at Olympia. Judging by its figurative qualit y, and by the costliness of the material and technique, it was probably a untamed votive offering. The figures obviously interact, revealing the artists interest in narrative, a theme that persists throughout the history of Greek art. Whether the artist was referring to a story known to his auditory modality is hard to say. The figures helmets tell us that their encounter is martial, and the larger scale of the man may suggest that he will be the victor in the struggle.Many scholars believe he represents Herakles, son of Zeus and a Greek hero, who fought centaurs many times in the course of his mythical travails. THE ORIENTALIZING STYLE HORIZONS EXPAND Between about 725 and 650 BCE, a new style of pottery and sculpture emerged in Greece that reflects strong influences initially from the Near East and later from Egypt. Scholars know this as the Orientalizing period, when Greek art and culture rapidly absorbed a host of Eastern motifs and bringing close togethers, including hybri d creatures such as griffins and sphinxes.This absorption of Eastern ideas led to a vital period of experimentation, as painters and carvers mastered new forms. Map 5. 1 The Ancient Greek World 5. 1 Some common Greek vessel forms 5. 2 Late Geometric belly-handled amphora by the Dipylon Master, from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens. ca 750 BCE. flower 51 (1. 55 m) National Archaeological Museum, Athens 5. 3 Common Greek ornamental motifs 5. 4 Man and Centaur, perharps from Olympia. ca 750 BCE. Bronze. Height 4 3/8 (11. 1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. 17. 190. 072 Miniature Vessels The Orientalizing style replaced the Geometric in many Greek city-states, including Athens. One of the foremost centers of its production, though, was Corinth, at the northeastern gateway to the Peloponnese. This city became a leader in colonizing ventures in the west and came to dominate the trade in exports. playboy workshops had a long history of pottery production. Vase painters learned to make a refined black gloss slip, which they used to create silhouette or abstract images. They could also incise the slip to add detail and vivacity to their work.They particularly specialized in crafting miniature vessels like the vase shown here, which is at Proto-Corinthian aryballos or perfume jar, dating to about 680 BCE (fig. 5. 5). Archeologists have discovered vessels like this one throughout the Greek world, leftover in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods, or buried as grave goods. Despite its small size, intricate decoration covers the vases surface. Around the shoulder stalks a frieze of animals, reminiscent of Near Eastern animal motifs and of the early example seen on the Dipylon Vase (see figs. 2. 25 and 5. 2).Bands are real and imaginary animals are a hallmark of Corinthian and other Orientalizing wares, covering later vases from top to bottom. A guilloche pattern ornaments the handle, and meander patterns cover the butt on o f the mouth and the handle (see fig. 5. 3). The principal figural frieze offers another early example of pictorial narrative, but the daily life scenes of Geometric pottery have yielded to the fantastic world of myth. On one side, a stocky nude male wielding a sword runs toward a vase on a stand. On the side shown here, barbate male struggles to wrest a scepter or staff from the grasp of a centaur.According to one theory, the frieze represents a moment in Herakles conflict with a band of centaurs on Mount Pholoe. In Greek mythology, centaurs were notoriously susceptible to alcohol, and the mixing bowl for wine represented on the other side may indicate the reason for their rowdiness. Others interpret the Herakles figure as Zeus, brandishing his thunderbolt or lightning. No matter how one reads this scene, there is no doubt that it was meant to evoke a unreal reality. BRONZE TRIPODS During the Geometric period, Greeks would sometimes set up bronze tripod cauldrons in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods (fig. . 6). The gesture was an act of piety, but it was also a way of displaying wealth, and some of the tripod cauldrons reached monumental proportions. From the early seventh century BCE, a new type of monumental vessel was introduced the Orientalizing cauldron. Around the edge of the bowl, bronze-workers might catch protomes, images of sirens (winged female creatures), and griffins both were fantasy creatures that were known in the Near East. The cast protome shown here, from the island of Rhodes, is a magnificently ominous creature, standing watch over the dedication (fig. 5. 7).The boldly upright ears and the tumid knob on top of the head contrast starkly with the strong curves of the neck, head, eyes, and mouth, while its menacing tongue is silhouetted in countercurve against the beak. The straight lines appear to animate the curves, so that the dangerous hybrid seems about to spring. ARCHAIC ART ART OF THE CITY-STATE During the course of the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, the Greeks appear to have refined their notion of a polis, or city-state. Once merely a citadel, the place of refuge in times of trouble, the city came to represent a community and an identity.City-states, as they are known, were governed in several different ways, including monarchy (from monarches, sole ruler), aristocracy (from aristoi and kratia, rule of the best), tyranny (from tyrannos, despot), oligarchy (from oligoi, the few, a small ruling elite), and, in Athens, democracy (from demos, the people). The road to democracy moved slowly, starting with Solons reforms at the end of the sixth century in Athens. Even by the time of Perikles radical democratic reforms of 462 BCE, women played no direct role in civic life, and slavery was the accepted practice in Athens, as it was everywhere in the Greek world.With the ever-changing ideal of the city-state came a change in its tangible appearance. The Rise of Monumental tabernacle Architecture At some point in the seventh century BCE, Greek architects began to design temples using pit rather than wood. The earliest were probably built at Corinth, in a style known as doric, named for the region where it originated. From there the idea spread across the isthmus that connects the Peloponnesos to the mainland and up the coast to Delphi and the island of Corfu, then rapidly throughout the Hellenic world.The Ionic style soon developed on the Aegean Islands and the coast of Asia Minor. The Corinthian style did not develop until the fourth century BCE (see page 142). Greeks recognized the importance of this architectural revolution at the time Architects began to write treatises on architecture the first we know of and the personal fame they achieved through their work has lasted to this day. Writing in Roman times, the architect Vitruvius advertd the Doric and Ionic styles, and his discussions of them have been central to our understanding of Greek architecture.However, our readings of his text have been mediated through early modern commentators and illustrators, who wrote of Doric and Ionic orders rather than types, which is a better displacement of Vitruvius genera. The distinction is important Order suggest an immutable quality, a rigid building code, when in fact we find a subtle but lively variation in surviving Greek architecture. The essential, functioning components of Doric and Ionic temples are very similar, though they may vary according to the size of the building or regional preferences (fig. 5. ). The nucleus of the buildingin fact, its reason for existing is its main chamber, its cella or naos. This chamber housed an image of the god to whom the temple was dedicated. Often, interior columns lined the cella walls and helped to support the roof, as well as visually framing the cult statue. Approaching the cella is a porch or pronaos, and in some cases a second porch was added cigarette the cella, making the design more symmetrical and providing s pace for religious paraphernalia. In large temples, a colonnade or peristyle surrounds the central unit of ella and porches, and the building is known as a peripteral temple. The peristyle commonly consists of six to eight columns at front and back, and usually 12 to 17 along the sides, counting the corner columns twice the very largest temples of Ionian Greece had a double colonnade. The peristyle added more than grandeur It offered worshipers shelter from the elements. Being neither entirely exterior nor entirely interior space, it also functioned as a transitional zone, between the profane world outside and the sanctity of the cella.Some temples were set in sacred groves, where the columns, with their strong vertical form, integrated the temple with its environment. Echoed again inside the cella, the columns also integrated the exterior and interior of the building. Most Greek temples are oriented so that the entrance faces east, toward the rising sun. East of the temple is usua lly the altar, the truly indispensable installation for the performance of ritual. It was on the altar that Greeks performed sacrifices, standing in front the cult statue and the worshipping community of the Greek polis.Differences between the Doric and Ionic styles are apparent in a head-on view, or elevation. Many of the terms Greeks used to describe the parts of their buildings, shown in figure 5. 9, are still in common usage today. The building proper rests on an elevated platform, normally approached by three steps, known as the stereobate and stylobate. A Doric column consists of the shaft, usually marked by shallow vertical grooves, known as flutes, and the capital. The capital is make up of the flaring, cushionlike echinus and a square tablet called the abacus.The entablature, which includes all the plane elements that rest on the columns, is subdivided into the architrave(a row of stone blocks directly supported by the columns) the frieze, made up of alternating triple-g rooved triglyphs and smooth or sculpted metopes and a projecting horizontal cornice, or geison, which may include a gutter (sima). The architrave in turn supports the triangular pediment and the roof elements (the raking geison and raking sima). Ionic temples tend to rest on an additional take aim course, or euthynteria, as well as three steps.An Ionic column differs from a Doric column in having an ornate base of its own, perhaps used at first to protect the bottom from rain. Its shaft is more slender, with less tapering, ART IN TIME ca. 8th century BCEHomer writes The Iliad and The Odyssey 776 BCEFirst prodigious Games ca. 753 BCERome founded ca. 750 BCEDipylon Vase 5. 5 The Ajax Painter. Aryballos (perfume jar). Middle Protocorinthian IA, 690-675 BCE. Ceramic. Height 2 7/8 (7. 3 cm). diameter 1 3/4 (4. 4 cm). Museum of book Arts, Boston. Catharine Page Perkins Fund. Photograph 2006, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 95. 12 5. 6 Geometric tripod cauldron from Olympia. th century. H eight 21 1/2 (65 cm). Olympia Museum 5. 7 Griffin-head protome from a bronze tripod-cauldron, from Kameiros, Rhodes. ca. 650 BCE. Cast bronze. The British Museum, London 5. 8 Ground plan of a typical Greek peripteral temple (after Grinnell) and the capital has a double scroll or volute below the abacus, which projects strongly beyond the width of the shaft. The Ionic column lacks the muscular quality of its mainland cousin. Instead, it evokes a growing plant, something like a formalized palm tree, and this it shares with its Egyptian predecessors, though it may not have come directly from Egypt.Above the architrave, the frieze is dogging, rather than broken up visually into triglyphs and metopes. Whether Doric or Ionic, the temple structure was built of stone blocks fitted together without mortar, requiring that they be precisely shaped to achieve smooth joints. Where necessary, metal dowels or clamps fastened the blocks together. With rare exceptions, columns were made up of secti ons, called drums. The shaft was fluted after the entire column was assembled and in position. The roof was made of terra-cotta tiles over wooden rafters, and wooden beams were used for the ceiling.Fire was a constant threat. Just how either style came to emerge in Greece, and why they came together into succint systems so quickly, are still puzzling questions. Remains of the oldest surviving temples show that the main features of the Doric style were already well designateed soon after 600 BCE. Early Greek builders in stone seem to have drawn upon three sources of inspiration Mycenaean and Egyptian stone architecture, and pre- ancient Greek architecture in wood and mud brick. It is possible that the temples central unit, the cella and porch, derived from the plan of the Mycenaean megaron(see fig. . 19), either through continuous custom or by way of revival. If true, this relationship may reflect the revered place of Mycenaean culture in later Greek mythology. The shaft of the Dori c column tapers upward, not downward like the Minoan-Mycenaean column. This recalls fluted half-columns in the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara (see fig. 3. 6), of over 2,000 long time earlier. Moreover, the very notion that temple should be built of stone and have large numbers of columns was an Egyptian one, even if Egyptian temples were de write for greater internal traffic.Scholars assume that the Greeks learned many of their stone-cutting and masonry techniques from the Egyptians, as well as some knowledge of architectural ornamentation and geometry. In a sense, a Greek temple with its peristyle of columns might be viewed as the columned court of an Egyptian sanctuary turned inside out. Some scholars see the development of Doric architecture as a petrification (or turning to stone) of existing wooden forms, so that stone form follows wooden function. According to this view, at one triglyphs masked the ends of wooden beams, and the droplike shapes below, called guttae (see fig. . 9), are the descendants of wooden pegs that held them in place. Metopes evolved out of boards that filled gaps between the triglyphs to guard against weather. Mutules(flat projecting blocks), for their part, reflect the rafter ends in wooden roofs. Some derivations are more convincing than others, however. The vertical subdivisions of triglyphs hardly seem to reflect the forms of three half-round logs, as scholars suggest, and column flutings need not be developed from tool marks on a tree trunk, since Egyptian builders also fluted their columns and yet seldom used timber for supporting members.The question of how far stylistic features can be explained in terms of function faces the architectural historian again and again. doric TEMPLES AT PAESTUM The early evolution of Doric temples is evident in deuce unusually well-preserved examples located in the southern Italian polis of Paestum, where a Greek colony flourished during the antediluvian period. Both temples are dedicat ed to the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus the synagogue of Hera II, however, was built almost a century after the temple of Hera I, the so-called Basilica (fig. 5. 10). The differences in their proportions are striking. The Temple of Hera I( on the left, fig. 5. 0) appears low and sprawlingand not just because so much of the entablature is missingwhereas the Temple of Hera II looks tall and compact. This is partly because the temple of Hera I is enneastyle (with nine columns across the front and rear), while the later temple is only hexastyle (six columns). Yet it is also the result of changes to the outline of the columns. On neither temple are the column shafts straight from bottom to top. About a third of the way up, they bulge outward slightly, receding again at about two thirds of their height. This swelling effect, known as entasis, is much stronger on the earlier Temple of Hera I.It gives the impression that the columns bulge with the strain of supporting the superstructure and that the slender tops, although assist by the widely flaring, cushionlike capitals, can barely withstand the crushing weight. The device adds an wonderworking vitality to the building a sense of compressed energy wait to be released. The Temple of Hera II is among the best preserved of all Doric temples (fig. 5. 11), and shows how the ceiling was supported in a large Doric temple. Inside the cella, the two rows of columns each support a smaller set of columns in a way that makes the tapering seem continuous despite the architrave in between.Such a two-story interior is first found at the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina around the beginning of the fifth century BCE. That temple is shown here in a reconstruction drawing (fig. 5. 12), which illustrates the structural system in detail. EARLY IONIC TEMPLES The Ionic style first appeared about a half-century after the Doric. With its vegetal decoration, it seems to have been strongly stimulate by Near Eastern forms. The closest known par allel to the Ionic capital is the Aeolic capital, found in the region of Old Smyrna, in eastern Greece, and in the northeast Aegean, itself apparently derived from North Syrian and Phoenician designs.The earliest Ionic temples were constructed in Ionian Greece, where leading cities erected vast, ornate temples in open rivalry with one another. Little survives of these early buildings. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesos gained tremendous fame in antiquity, and numbered among the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Ephesians hired Theodoros to work on its foundations in about 560 BCE, shortly after he and another architect, Rhoikos, had designed a vast temple to Hera on the island of Samos. The architects, Chersiphron of Knossos and Metagenes, his son, wrote a treatise on their building.Like the temple on Samos, the temple at Ephesos was dipteral, with two rows of columns touch it (fig. 5. 13). Along with the vegetal capitals, this feature emphasized the forestlike quality of the b uilding. The Temple of Artemis was larger than Heras temple, and it was the first monumental building to be constructed mostly of marble. These Ionic colossi had clear typic value They represented their respective citys bid for regional leadership. Stone Sculpture According to literary sources, Greeks carved very simple wooden sculptures of their gods in the eighth century BCE, but since wood deteriorates, none of them survive.Yet, in about 650 BCE, sculptors, like architects, made the transition to working in stone, and so began one of the great traditions of Greek art. The new motifs that distinguished the Orientalizing style from the Geometric had reached Greece mainly through the importation of ivory carvings and metalwork from the Near East, reflecting Egyptian influences as well. But these transportable objects do not help to explain the rise of monumental stone architecture and sculpture, which mustiness have been establish on careful, on-the-spot study of Egyptian works an d the techniques used to produce them.The opportunity for just such a close study was available to Greek merchants living in trading camps in the western Nile delta, by permission of the Egyptian king Psammetichus I (r. 664-610 BCE). KORE AND KOUROS Early Greek statues clearly show affinities with the techniques and proportional systems used by Egyptian sculptors. Two are illustrated here, one a small female figure of about 630 BCE, probably from Crete (fig. 5. 14), the other a life-size nude male youth of about 600 BCE (fig. 5. 15), known as the New York Kouros because it is displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.Like their Egyptian forerunners (see figs. 3. 11 and 3. 12), the statues are rigidly frontal, and conceived as four distinct sides, reflecting the form of the block from which they were carved, The female statue stands with feet placed firmly together, her left arm by her side, and her right arm held up to her breast. Like Menkaure, the Greek male youth is slim and br oad-shouldered he stands with his left leg forward, and his arms by his sides, terminating in clenched fists. His shoulders, hips, and knees are all level.Both figures have stylized, wiglike hair like their Egyptian counterparts, but there are world-shaking differences. First, the Greek sculptures are truly free-standing, separated from the back slab that supports Egyptian stone figures. In fact, they are the earliest large stone images of the human figure in the history of art that can stand on their own. More than that, Greek sculptures incorporated ART IN TIME ca. 680 BCECorinthian aryballos mid-7th century BCEBlack-figured vase-painting technique develops ca. 650 BCEGreeks establish trading posts in Egypt ca. 20 BCEDraco codifies Athenian laws 5. 9 Doric and Ionic styles in elevation 5. 10 The Temple of Hera I (Basilica), ca. 550 BCE, and the Temple of Hera II (Temple of Poseidon), ca. 500 BCE. Paestum 5. 11 Interior, Temple of Hera II, ca. 500 BCE 5. 12 Sectional view (restore d) of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina 5. 13 Restored plan of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, Turkey. ca. 560 BCE eject space (between the legs, for instance, or between arms and torso), whereas Egyptian figures remained immersed in stone, with the empty spaces between forms partly filled.Early Greek sculptures are also more stylized than their Egyptian forebears. This is most evident in the large staring eyes, emphasized by bold arching eyebrows, and in the linear treatment of the anatomy The male youths pectoral muscles and rib cage appear almost to have been etched onto the surface of the stone, rather than modeled like Menkaures. Like most early Greek female sculptures, this one is draped. She wears a close-fitting garment which reveals her breasts but conceals her hips and legs in fact, the skirt has more in common with Egyptian block statues than with Queen Khamerernebty (see fig. 3. 2). While the Greek female statue and Menkaure are clothed, the male youth is nude. These conv entions reflect the fact that public nudity in ancient Greece was acceptable for males, but not for females. Dozen of Archaic sculptures of this kind survive throughout the Greek world. Some were discovered in sanctuaries and cemeteries, but most were found in reused contexts, which complicates any attempt to understand their function. Scholars describe them by the Greek terms for maiden (kore, plural korai) and youth (kouros, plural kouroi). These terms gloss over the difficulty of identifying them more precisely.Some are inscribed, with the names of artists (So-and-so made me) or with dedications to various deities, chiefly Apollo. These, then, were votive offerings. But in most cases we do not know whether they represent the donor, a deity, or a person deemed divinely favored, such as a victor in athletic games. Those placed on graves may have represented the person buried beneath yet in rare cases a kouros stands over a female burial site. No clear effort was made to individuali ze the statues as portraits, so they can represent the dead only in a general sense.It might make most sense to think of the figures as ideals of physical perfection and vitality shared by mortals and immortals alike, given meaning by their physical context. What is clear is that only the wealthy could afford to erect them, since many were well over life size and carved from high quality marble. Indeed, the very stylistic cohesion of the sculptures may reveal their social function By raise a sculpture of this kind, a wealthy patron declared his or her status and claimed membership in ruling elite circles. DATING AND NATURALISM The Archaic period stretches from the mid-seventh century to about 480 BCE.Within this time frame, there are few secure dates for free-standing sculptures. Scholars have therefore established a dating system based upon the level of naturalism in a given sculpture. According to this system, the more stylized the figure, the earlier it must be. Comparing figure s 5. 15 and 5. 16 illustrates how this model works. An document on the base of the latter identifies it as a funerary statue of Kroisos, who had died a heros death in battle. Like all such figures, it was painted, and traces of color can still be seen in the hair and the pupils of the eyes.Instead of the sharp planes and linear treatment of the New York Kouros (fig. 5. 15), the sculptor of the kouros from Anavysos modeled its anatomy with swelling curves looking at it, a dish can imagine flesh and sinew and bones in the carved stone. A greater plasticity gives the impression that the body could actually function. The proportions of the facial features are more representational as well. In general, the face has a less masklike quality than the New York Kouros, though the lips are still drawn up in an artificial smile, known as the Archaic smile, that is not reflected in the eyes.Based on these differences, scholars judge the Anavysos Kouros more advanced than the New York Kouros, and date it some 75 years later. Given the later trajectory of Greek sculpture, there is every reason to believe that this way of dating Archaic sculpture is more or less accurate (accounting for regional differences and the like). All the same, it is worth emphasizing that it is based on an assumptionthat sculptors, or their patrons, were striving toward naturalismrather than on factual data. The kore type appears to follow, a similar pattern of development to the kouros.With her blocklike form and strongly accented waist, for instance, the kore of figure 5. 17 seems a direct descendant of the kore in figure 5. 14. On account of her heavy woolen garment (or peplos), she is known as the Peplos Kore. The left hand, which once extended forward to offer a votive gift, must have given the statue a spatial quality quite different from that of the earlier kore figure. Equally new is the more organic treatment of the hair, which falls over the shoulders in soft, curly strands, in contrast to the stiff wig in figure 5. 14.The face is fuller, rounder, and the smile gentler and more natural than any we have seen so far, moving from the mouth into the cheeks. Scholars therefore place this statue a full century later than the work shown in figure 5. 14. All the same, there is more variation in types of kore than in types of kouros. This is partly because a kore is a clothed figure and therefore presents the problem of how to relate body and drapery. It is also likely to reflect changing habits or local styles of dress. The kore of figure 5. 18, from about a decade later than the Peplos Kore, has none of the latters severity.Both were found on the Akropolis of Athens, but she probably came from Chios, and island of Ionian Greece. inappropriate the korai discussed so far, this kore wears the light Ionian chiton under the heavier diagonally-shaped kimation, which replaced the peplos in fashion. The layers of the garment still loop around the body in soft curves, but the pla y of richly differentiated folds, pleats, and textures has almost become an end in itself. Color played an important role in such works, and it is fortunate that so much of it survives in this example. Architectural Sculpture The Building Comes AliveSoon after the Greeks began to build temples in stone, they also started to decorate them with architectural sculpture. Indeed, early Greek architects such as Theodoros of Samos were often sculptors as well, and sculpture played an important role in helping to articulate architecture and to bring it to life. Traces of pigment show that these sculptures were normally vividly paintedan image that is startlingly at odds with our conception of ancient sculpture as pristine white marble. The Egyptians had been covering walls and columns with eternal rests since the Old Kingdom.Their carvings were so shallow (for example, see fig. 3. 29) that they did not break the continuity of the surface and had no weight or volume of their own. Thus they were related to their architectural setting in the same sense as wall paintings. This is also true of the reliefs on Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian buildings (for example, see figs. 2. 21 and 2. 22). the Near East, however, there was another kind of architectural sculpture, which seems to have begun with the Hittites the guardian monsters protuding from the blocks that framed the gateways of fortresses or palaces (see fig. . 23). This tradition may have inspired, directly, or indirectly, the carving over the Lion Gate of Mycenae (see fig. 4. 22). THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS, CORFU That the Lion Gate relief is, conceptually, an ancestor of later Greek architectural sculpture is clear when one considers the facade of the early Archaic Temple of Artemis on the island of Corfu, built soon after 600 BCE (figs. 5. 19 and 5. 20). There, sculpture is confined to a triangle between the ceiling and the roof, known as the pediment. This area serves as a screen, protecting the wooden rafters behin d it from moisture.The pedimental sculpture is displayed against this screen. Technically, these carvings are in high relief, like the guardian lionesses at Mycenae. However, the bodies are so strongly undercut that they are nearly detached from the background, and appear to be almost case-by-case of their architectural setting. Indeed, the head of the central figure actually overlaps the frame she seems to emerge out of the pediment toward a viewer. This choice on the sculptors part heightens the impact of the figure and strengthens her function.Although the temple was dedicated to Artemis, the figure represents the snake-haired medusan, one of the Gorgon sisters of Greek mythology. Medusas appearance was so monstrous, so the story went, that anyone who beheld her would turn to stone. With the aid of the gods, Perseus beheaded her, channelize his sword by looking at her demonstration in his shield. 5. 14 Kore (Maiden). ca. 630 BCE. Limestone. Height 24 1/2 (62. 3 cm). Musee du Louvre, Paris 5. 15 Kouros (Youth), ca. 600-590 BCE. Marble. Height 61 1/2 (1. 88 m). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 5. 16 Kroisos (Kouros from Anavysos). ca. 540-525 BCE.Marble. Height 64 (1. 9 m). National Museum, Athens 5. 17 Kore in Dorian Peplos, known as Peplos Kore, ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 48 (122 cm). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 18 Kore, from Chios (? ). ca. 520 BCE, Marble. Height 21 7/8 (55. 3). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 19 Central Portion of the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu, Greece, ca. 600-580 BCE. Limestone. Height 92. (2. 8 m). Archaeological Museum, Corfu, Greece Traditionally, Medusa has been thought of as a protective visual device, but recent approaches argue that she served as a visual commentary on the power of the divinity.She is conceived as a mistress of animals exemplifying the goddess power and her dominance over Nature. Two large feline creatures annex Medusa, in a communicative arrangement known from the Lion Gate at My cenae, and from many earlier Near Eastern examples. To strengthen the sculptures message, the artist include narrative elements in the pediment as well. In the spaces between and behind the main group, the sculptor inserted a number of subsidiary figures. On either side of Medusa are her children, the winged horse Pegasus, and Chrysaor, who will be born from drops of her blood, shed when Perseus decapitates her.Logically speaking, they cannot yet exist, since Medusas head is still on her shoulders and yet their presence in the heraldic arrangement alludes to the future, when Perseus will have claimed the Gorgons power as his ownjust as the sculptor has here, in the service of Artemis. The sculptor has fused two separate moments from a single story, in what is known as a synoptic narrative, bringing the story to life. Two additional groups filled the pediments corners, possibly depicting Zeus and Poseidon battling the giants (a gigantomachy), a moral race who tried to overthrow the g ods.Like the central figures, they strike a cautionary note, since the gods destroyed them for their overreaching ambitions. With their reclining pose, the felines fit the shape of the pediment comfortably. Yet in order to fit Pegasus and Chrysaor between Medusa and the felines, and the groups into the corners, the sculptor carved them at a significantly smaller scale than the dominant figures. Later solutions to the pediments awkward shape suggest that this one, which lacks unity of scale, was not wholly satisfactory.Aside from filling the pediment, Greeks might affix free-standing figures, known as acroteria (often of terra cotta) above the corners and the center of the pediment, softening the severity of its outline (see fig. 5. 21). Greek sculptors also decorate the frieze. In Doric temples, such as at Corfu, where the frieze consists of triglyphs and metopes, they would often decorate the latter with figural scenes. In Ionic temples, the frieze was a continuous band of painted or sculpted decoration.Moreover, in Ionic buildings, female statues or caryatids might substitute for columns to support the roof of a porch, adding a barely decorative quality (see figs. 5. 21 and 5. 53). THE SIPHNIAN TREASURY, DELPHI These Ionic features came together in a treasury built at Delphi shortly before 525 BCE by the people of the Ionian island of Siphnos. Treasuries were like miniature temples, used for storing votive gifts typically, they had an ornate quality. Although the Treasury of the Siphnians no longer stands, archeologists have been able to create a reconstruction from what survives (figs. . 21 and 5. 22). supporting(a) the architrave of the porch were two caryatids. Above the architrave is a magnificent sculptural frieze. The detail shown here (fig. 5. 22) depicts part of the mythical battle of the Greek gods against the giants, who had challenged divine authority. At the far left, the two lions who pull the chariot of the mother goddess Cybele tear apart an anguished giant. In front of them, Apollo and Artemis advance together, sending arrows into a phalanx of giants. Their weapons were once added to the sculpture in metal.Stripped of his armor, a dead giant lies at their feet. As in the Corfu pediment, the tale is a cautionary one, warning mortals not to aim higher than their natural place in the order of things. Though the subject is mythical, its depiction offers a wealth of detail on contemporary weaponry and military tactics. Astonishingly, the relief is only a few inches deep from front to back. Within that shallow space, the sculptors (more than one hand is discernible) created several planes. The arms and legs of those nearest a viewer are carved in the round.In the second and third layers, the forms become shallower, yet even those farthest from a viewer do not merge into the background. The resulting relationships between figures give a dramatic sense of the turmoil of battle and an intensity of action not seen before in na rrative reliefs. As at Corfu, the protagonists fill the sculptural field from top to bottom, enhancing the friezes power. This is a dominant characteristic of Archaic and Classical Greek art, and with time, sculptors executing pedimental sculpture sought new ways to fill the field while retaining a unity of scale.Taking their cue, perhaps, from friezes such as that found on the Siphnian Treasury, they introduced a variety of poses, and made great strides in depicting the human body in naturalistic motion. This is well illustrated in the pediments of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf visible from Attica (see fig. 5. 12). PEDIMENTS OF THE TEMPLE OF APHAIA AT AEGINA. The temple of Aphaias original east pediment was probably destroyed by the Persians when they took the island in 490 BCE. The Aeginetans commissioned the present one (fig. 5. 3) after defeating the Persians at the battle of Salamis in 480 BCE. It depicts the first sack of Troy, by Herakles and T elamon, king of Salamis. The west pediment, which dates from about 510-500 BCE, depicts the second siege of Troy (recounted in The Iliad) by Agamemnon, who was related to Herakles. The pairing of subjects commemorates the important role played by the heroes of Aegina in both battlesand, by extension, at Salamis, where their navy helped win the day. The elevation of historical events to a universal plane through allegory was typical of Greek art.The figures of both pediments are fully in the round, independent of the background that they decorate. Those of the east pediment were found in pieces on the ground. Scholars continue to debate their exact arrangement, but the relative position of each figure within the pediment can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Since the designer introduced a wide range of action poses for the figures, their height, but not their scale, varies to suit the gently sloping sides of the pedimental field (fig. 5. 23). These variances in height can be u sed to determine the figures original positions.In the center stands the goddess Athena, presiding over the battle between Greeks and Trojans that rages on either side of her. Kneeling archers shoot across the pediment to unite its action. The symmetrical arrangement of the poses on the two halves of the pediment creates a balanced design, so that while each figure has a clear autonomy, it also exists within a governing ornamental pattern. If we compare a fallen warrior from the west pediment (fig. 5. 24) with its counterpart from the later east pediment (fig. 5. 25) we see some indication of the extraordinary advances sculptors made toward naturalism during the decades that separate them.As they sink to the ground in death, both figures present a clever solution to filling the awkward corner space. Yet while the earlier figure props himself up on one arm, only a precariously balance shield supports the later warrior, whose full weight seems to pull him irresistibly to the ground. B oth sculptors aimed to contort the dying warriors body in the agonies of his death The earlier sculptor crosses the warriors legs in an awkward pose, while the later sculptor more convincingly twists the body from the waist, so that the left shoulder moves into a new plane.Although the later warriors anatomy still does not fully respond to his pose (note, for instance, how little the pectorals stretch to accommodate the strenuous motion of the right arm), his body is more modeled and organic than the earlier warriors. He also breaks from the head-on look of his predecessor, turning his gaze to the ground that confronts him. The effect suggests introspection The inscrutable smiling mask of the earlier warrior yields to the suffering and emotion of a warrior in his final moments. Vase photo Art of the SymposiumIn vase painting, the new Archaic style would replace the Orientalizing phase as workshops in Athens and other centers produced extremely fine wares, painted with scenes from mythology, legend, and everyday life. The vases illustrated in these pages were used to hold wine, but were not meant for everyday use. The Greeks generally poured their wine from plainer, unadorned vases. Decorated vases were reserved for important occasions, like the symposium (symposion), an exclusive drinking companionship for men and courtesans wives and other respectable citizen women were not included.Participants reclined on couches around the edges of a room, and a master of ceremonies filled their cups from a large painted mixing bowl (a krater) in the middle of the room. Music, poetry, storytelling, and word games accompanied the festivities. Often the event ended in lovemaking, which is frequently depicted on drinking cups. Yet there was also a serious side to symposia, as described by Plato and Xenophon, 5. 20 reconstruction drawing of the west front of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu (after Rodenwaldt) 5. 21 Reconstruction drawing of the Treasury of the Siphnians.Sanc tuary of Apollo at Delphi, ca. 525 BCE 5. 22 Battle of the Gods and Giants, from the north frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians, Delphi. ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 26 (66 cm). Archaeological Museum, Delphi 5. 23 Reconstruction drawing of the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (after Ohly) 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. continuance 5 2 1/2 (1. 59 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. Length 5 2 1/2 (1. 9 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich centering on debates about politics, ethics, and morality. The great issues that the Greeks pondered in their philosophy, literature, and theaterthe nature of virtue, the value of an individual mans life, or mortal relations with the gods, to name a fewwere mirrored in, and prompted by, the images with which they surrounded themselves. After the middle of the sixth century BCE, many of the finest vessels bear signatures of the artists who made them, indicating the feel that potters and painters alike took in their work.In many cases, vase painters had such distinctive styles that scholars can recognize their work even without a signature, and modern names are used to identify them. Dozens of vases (in one instance, over 200) might survive by the same hand, allowing scholars to trace a single painters development over many years. The difference between Orientalizing and Archaic vase painting is largely one of technique. On the aryballos from Corinth (see fig. 5. 5), the figures appear partly as solid silhouettes, partly in outline, or as a combine of the two.Toward the end of the seventh century BCE, influenced by Corinthian products, Attic vase painters began to work in the black-figured technique The entire design was painted in black silhouette against the reddish clay and then the internal details were incised int o the design with a needle. Then, white and purple were painted over the black to make elect areas stand out. The technique lent itself to a two-dimensional and highly decorative effect. This development marks the beginning of an aggressive export industry, the main consumers of which were the Etruscans.Vast numbers of black-figured vases were found in Etruscan tombs. Thus, although in terms of conception these vases (and later red-figured vessels) represent a major chapter in Greek (and specifically Athenian) art, if we think about their actual use, painted vases can be considered a major component of Etruscan culture, both visual and funerary. A fine example of the black-figured technique is an Athenian amphora signed by Exekias as both potter and painter, dating to the third quarter of the sixth century BCE (fig. 5. 26). The painting shows the Homeric heroes Achilles and Ajax playing dice.The episode does not exist in surviving literary sources, and its appearance here points to the wide field of traditions that inspired Exekias. The two figures lean on their spears their shields are stacked behind them against the inside of a social movement tent. The black silhouettes create a rhythmical composition, symmetrical around the table in the center. Within the black paint, Exekias has incised a wealth of detail, focusing especially upon the cloaks of the warriors their intricately woven texture contrasts with the lustrous blackness of their weapons. The extraordinary power of this scene derives from the tension within it.The warriors have stolen a moment of relaxation during a fierce war even so, poised on the edge of their stools, one heel raised as if to jump at any moment, their poses are edgy. An inscription in front of Ajax, on the right, reads three, as if he is calling out his throw. Achilles, who in his helmet slightly dominates the scene, answers with four, making him the winner. Yet many a Greek viewer would have understood the irony of the scene, fo r when they return to battle, Achilles will die, and Ajax will be left to bear his friends lifeless body back to the Greek camp, before falling on his own sword in despair.Indeed, Exekias himself would paint representations of the heroes tragic deaths. This amphora is the first known representation of the gaming scene, which subsequently became very popular, suggesting that individual vase painting did not exist in artistic isolation painters responded to one anothers work in a close and often clever dialogue. Despite its decorative potential, the silhouettelike black-figured technique limited the artist to incision for detail. Toward the end of the sixth century BCE, painters developed the reverse procedure, leaving the figures red and filling in the background.This red-figured technique gradually replaced the erstwhile(a) method betwee 520 and 500 BCE. The effects of the change would be felt increasingly in the decades to come, but they are already discernible on an amphora of ab out 510-500 BCE, signed by Euthymides (fig. 5. 27). No longer is the scene so dependent on profiles. The painters new freedom with the brush translates into a freedom of movement in the leaping revelers he represents. They cavort in a range of poses, twisting their bodies and showing off Euthymides confidence in rendering human anatomy.The shoulder blades of the central figure, for instance, are not level, but instead reflect the motion of his raised arm. The turning poses allow Euthymides to tackle foreshortening, as he portrays the different planes of the body (the turning shoulders, for instance) on a single surface. This was an age of intensive and self-conscious experimentation indeed, so pleased was Euthymides with his painting that he inscribed it with a taunting challenge to a fellow painter, As never Euphronios.On a slightly later kylix (wine cup) by Douris, dating to 490-480 BCE, Eos, the goddess of dawn, tenderly lifts a limp body of her dead son. Memnon, whom Achilles k illed after their mothers sought the intervention of Zeus (fig. 5. 28). Douris traces the contours of limbs beneath the drapery, and balances vigorous outlines with more delicate secondary strokes, such as those indicating the anatomical details of Memnons body contrasts with the lift of Eos wings, an wry commentary, perhaps, on how Zeus decided between the two warriors by weighing their souls on a scale that tipped against Memnon.After killing him, Achilles stripped off Memnons armor as a gesture of humiliation, and where the figures overlap in the image, the gentle folds of Eos flowing chiton set off Memnons nudity. His vulnerability in turn underlines his mothers desperate wo at being unable to help her son. At the core of the image is raw emotion. Douris tenderly exposes the suffering caused by intrasigent fate, and the callousness of the gods who intervene in mortal lives. As we saw on the pediment from Aegina, depictions of suffering, and how humans respond to it, are among the most dramatic developments of late Archaic art.In this mythological scene, Athenians may have seen a reflection of themselves during the horrors of the Persian Wars. Indeed, the vase is brought into the realm of everyday life by its inscription, with the signatures of both painter and potter, as well as a dedication typical of Greek vases Hermogenes is beautiful. THE perfect AGE The beginning of the fifth century BCE brought crisis. A number of Ionian cities rebelled against their Persian overlords.

Enders Shadow Book Report Essay

covered stadium- Main Character, Protaganist A homeless boy on the streets of Rotterdam that uses his intelligence to lift on him alive, and e publiciseuall(a)y earn him a spot on the ranks of competitiveness School. Andrew Ender Wiggin- Another boy recruited to Battle School, a lot like bean, small, and extremely smart. Is garrets mentor and sheath as he goes through Battle School. Poke A nine year old girl, that also lives on streets of Rotterdam. Takes bean into her family and gives him a chance. She is unrivaled of the of import reasons for bean plants survival. Sergeant Pokes right hand man. He is eight years old. He dwells Achilles killed Poke but doesnt tell eitherone and then sides with Achilles. Achilles A bully of Rotterdam, has a bad leg, is ram uped and forced to join Pokes family for protection. It was beans plan that got Achilles into the family.Helga An advisor in the kitchen of Rotterdam, supervises the lines eruptside. When Achilles brings his family to the kitchen she has compassion and immediately lets them to the front of the line. She interchanges the rules so that any older child that has and cargons for younger children allow always eat first. Nikolai Delphiki Enders t take on brother, he helps Enders in Battle School and is one of the few people he understructure trust. Sister Carlotta is the woman who recruited attic to Battle School and saw his intelligence and recognized it. Petra Arkanian takes garret under her wing when he is first assigned to Salamander Army, while Bonzo, the commander, refuses to teach him anything. Bonzo capital of Spain Bonzo is an enemy of Enders.Colonel Graff the head advisor of Battle School. Islolates Bean to make him learn to survive and strengthen him. DimakThe man who questions Bean when he first make fors on the shuttle, lets everyone know he is smarter than them. Mexican Janitor Finds Bean in the Toilet in the orphanage. Dr. Volescu Beans fatherThis story crop ups out with Bean a t age 7 attempting to survive on the streets of Rotterdam. He is very small for his age but extremely smart. There argon a lot of little groups of homeless children on the streets of Rotterdam that stick unitedly and help each other out, because on that point is strength in numbers and it increases their chances of survival. He isnt part of any of these groups he only finds food by what he scavenges out of garbage cans. In the streets of Rotterdam food was hard to come by, my only source of food came from what I could find in the garbage cans (Card 8) however one day he goes up to poke and tells her he has a plan to help her survive. At first she pushes him away and threatens to kill him, but as she listens to his plan of recruiting a bully for protection she finds that she likes the idea.You got to get your own bully (Card 18). If I get me a Bully, if what you said works, then maybe I hightail it you(Card 19). So Bean makes the plan that they need to jump one of the bullies tha t are still strong and dominant but can still be taken down and controlled. So they decide that Achilles is perfect for the job. If he doesnt comply then we kill him (Card 19) When Achilles walks down a alley way all of the kids jump on him and pound him with rocks until he is only holding to life by a thread. They tell him they forget let him live if he joins their family and protects them. You get us to the front of the line at the Kitchen(Card 20)? Sure, Right, I will, I promise(Card 20). Dont believe him, Kill Him(Card 20) Dont be stupid, said Poke, Hes in(Card 20). If you dont kill him now he is going to kill you.(Card 20).Achilles gets them into the Kitchen like he promised and he slowly starts to take over Pokes position as leader. Soon enough he has all of the kids calling him papa. Its your crew not mine, This is more of a Crew to me this is my Family(Card 23). Bean saw at erst Achilles had win. Powerful bully, and he had called these kids his sisters, his brothers. Bea n could see the hunger, the deep hunger, for family, for love, for belonging. They got a little of that by being in Pokes crew. But Achilles was promising more. He had just beaten Pokes best offer. Now it was too late to kill him(Card 23). When Achilles takes his family to the kitchen Helga lets them go right to the front of the line, but before they get there Achilles stabs one of the other bullys with a knife to let everyone know he means business. later on that night Bean hears some of the Bullys saying they are going to kill Achilles for cutting in line. That same night Bean meets Sister Carlotta, a nun, and she tells him she can get him out of there. The next day when Bean tells Achilles what he had heard he doesnt seem worried, then later Sister Carlotta has him take a few more tests and Bean passes with flying colors. Later that night Bean sees Poke slip away, follows her and sees her meet up with Achilles and sees them kiss He starts to head back to the family then turns bac k for a moment, and sees Poke with a knife in her eye and Achilles nowhere to be seen. I trusted him, I knew what he was from the first and I trusted him(Card 47). Aww Poke you poor, stupid, kind, decent girl, you saved me and I let you down(Card 47).Sister Carlotta begins talking to the Advisors of Battle School, at first they say they want Achilles, but afterwards learning he committed a murder they decide they dont. When she tells them round Bean they say they might want to wait a few more years before they take him in. Bean begins having dreams about his past, he tells Sister Carlotta about them. He says he remembers living in a clean place and remembers a man would come in and clean at night and Bean would get scared when he heard him so he would hide in a lavatory bowl. thusly he remembers the cleaning man taking him to his house. She attempts to find the janitor that saved Bean in attempt to recover answers about his past. When she finds the janitor she brings a cop with her for questioning. They signalize that Bean was raised in an Organ Farm, but the people behind the Organ Farm are untraceable. The Commanders decide that they are going to bring Bean to Battle School despite their doubts.When Bean first gets on the shuttle a man comes out and introduces himself as Dimak and immediately starts quizzing them. He calls out Bean and though he was smaller he made sure all of the other kids on the shuttle knew that Bean was smarter than them. When Bean first arrives at Battle school he starts exploring. He finds the older kids classrooms, but before he can go anywhere else, a girl named Petra Arkanian leads him back to the Game Room. The plucky room is a room filled with games. While in the game room Bean notices some air vents that with his size, he could crawl into, and so he does. He can travel from place to place by the air vents. The Commanders notice that Bean took a long time to get back to the barracks, collect to the tracking devices that t hey have in the suits but they dont give it oft thought.Next they let the launchies (or new kids) set up their com chargeers in their rooms, Bean sets up two, and they say that on their free time they can play this fantasy game on the computers. Bean know that if he plays this game it will allow the Advisors to know more and more about him but he doesnt care. Then he meets Bonzo Madrid a enemy of Ender and he tells Bean all of Enders weaknesses but Bean doesnt care about his weaknesses he just wants to know more about Ender. Bean creates a secret tract on his fake computer and put a lot of files and maps of Battle School on there. Then later the advisors see that there are one too many users and they tell everyone to change their passwords because someone is signing in as someone else. Meanwhile the advisors are fearing that Bean will plan a revolt, and contemplate sending him home but they dont. Meanwhile back on earth Sister Carlotta has met with an old Russian Scientist named An ton.Anton learned too much about something that he shouldnt know, so authorities placed a device in his head that restricted him telling other people about the things he discovered. But, when he and Sister Carlotta talk, they use references to code their talk so the implant wouldnt give him a panic attack and end their conversation. Unfortunately, the guards eventually figured their code out and gave Anton a panic attack. Sister Carlotta did learn that Bean was genetically altered to be super smart. The downside to this, though, was that he would have a short life and die in his twenties. The next day Bean leaves lunch extremely early to go in search of an air vent in his room, he finds one and that night he crawls in it and finds Colnel Graff talking to sister Carlotta saying that she found Beans father Dr. Volescu and he took some of his own genes and put in other Genes to make his children super smart and really small, but would grow to be giants by age 20, but would only live to be about 25.Then when Bean comes back he sees an advisor logging on to his computer he memorizes the advisors password and with this he now has access to a lot more information. With this new knowledge he writes many papers about the corruption of Battle School and other things. The Advisors find that Bean has logged on to an advisors account and discover that he writes as if he is an English professor, but instead of change the password they see what he does with the newly discovered information. Then they ask Bean to write a roster for the Dragon Army, this army has never won a match, Bean writes the roster and gives it to Dimak and immediately every somebody Bean requests is transferred into the Dragon Army, and Bean is the Commander. The next workweek sister Carlotta is requesting that they run tests on Bean to see if he really is Dr. Volescus son. They find out that he isnt Beans dad but his Uncle.And sister Carlotta gets word they are bringing up Achilles, Sister Carlotta is 100% against this. This week is also the first week of Practice, Bean is the best one in the army, and asks Ender for his own Toon, Ender says he has to prove his worth first then he will get his Toon. If your fair I will have my own Toon in a month(Card 223). Ender puts in a formation that can allow the team to break apart and scatter at any time. One of the members disagrees with the formation, Bean yells at him, then the kid pushes Bean up against the bunk, only to be saved by Nikolai. Sister Carlotta finds out that there were 24 other cloned eggs, but 23 of them are missing, but the other one is in battle school and discovers it is Nikolai, and that Bean and Nikolai are twins, the only divergency is that Bean is much more intelligent.Bean and the Dragon Army soon get their first battle, they win, and they start having battle after battle, day after day. Ender says that they cant fight like this anymore because his crew is getting worn out. Then later Bonzo meets Bean in the ha ll and asks how to beat Ender, when Bean wont tell him, he chokes him up against the wall and threatens to kill Bean and Ender both. The next day The Dragon Army has 2 battles in one day. notwithstanding on the second battle the team is allowed a 20 second head start. Dragon army wins but barely. That night Ender tells Bean all of his worries and problems and gives Bean his own Toon. Ender gets a few kids together and forms his Toon, he finds some chord that is used to hold up pillars. They discover that they could use it in battle, and it could allow them to change direction quickly.Then later when Ender is in the bathroom Bonzo and his friends come into the bathroom and gang up on Ender. Ender kicks Bonzo in the crotch and gets him on the ground and hurts him so bad he accidently kills him. The next day dispite Enders fight they have a Battle, except it is against 2 teams at once. Ender uses Beans special Toon and their chord, they defeat the two teams, then after the battle all of the Toon leader are made into commanders, when Bean goes to tell Ender this he finds that Ender has been promoted to Commander School. As Beans first action as commander he gives a speech in the mess hall, then he discovers that Achilles has been placed into his Army, he lays down the ground rules and makes sure he knows he is the boss, and treats him as any other launchy.That night Bean gets Achilles to crawl with him into the vent, Achilles trys to kill him, then all of the members of Beans team tie him to the fan, and tell him he can either confess all of his murders or they will hang him. He confesses them, then they hang him anyways. After this Bean is sent to command school, with nine other kids. Bean and other kids start training on simulators as if they are commanding a quadrant and fighting against Buggers. The command to the ships are instantaneous and soon Bean discovers that they arent acting a simulation at all they are sending messages across galaxies and commandin g real fleets.During the simulation, Petra falls asleep, and her fleet is blown to pieces, another kid loses his mind. The fleets are falling apart. But the day of the final battle, the Bugger forces are all grouped around the Bugger planet Ender sends in all the ships and destroys the Bugger planet, and the Buggers. And they win the war. As the planet exploded it engulfed all of the Buggers, the Buggers were all dead, they had won(Card 465). Bean goes home with his brother Nikolai and they see there long lost mom. And they are a grown happy family again. As for Ender he goes and lives and attempts to repopulate the Bugger Planet.